Technology - Voice Recognition Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1500 words

Technology - Voice Recognition - Essay Example The historical development of speech recognition technology spans at least 50 years. These years can be divided into decades, which most researchers would identify as generations. The 1950s and the 1960s was the period of first generation speech recognition technologies. The market condition for the technology during and immediately preceding periods was not favorable because it was only during the latter part of the 1990s when the technology became cheap and made available to many consumer markets. The late 1960s through the 1970s saw the second-generation technology; the late 1970s through 1980s were for the third generation and so forth. One of the earliest speech recognition technologies include the system for isolated digit recognition developed by the American company Bell Laboratories as well as the technology developed by RCA Laboratories that recognized distinct syllables spoken by a speaker. (Chen and Jokinen, 2010, p. 2) These technologies, including the succeeding attempts of various laboratories were classified as Automatic Speech Recognition or ASR systems, which are primarily based on acoustic phonetic systems. The second generation technologies entailed several breakthroughs. Most of the systems developed used dynamic programming methods such as the Viterbi algorithm, which became indispensable technique in ASR. (Chen and Jokinen, p. 3) Many companies began developing their own speech recognition technologies such as IBM and others companies overseas such as Japan and the then Soviet Union. By 1980s, the third generation has already perfected technologies that that could recognize a fluently spoken stri ng of connected word in addition to the development of various other models such as the statistical modeling and the continuous speech recognition concept developed by DARPA. (p. 4) From the 1990s to the present the development became robust as other technologies that

Student Interview about sustainability Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 500 words

Student Interview about sustainability - Essay Example In her words, sustainability refers to how biological processes remain productive and diverse. She also identifies the different takes on sustainability by various fields, including in economics, business operations, and use of natural resources. Moreover, she was quite emphatic that the way we live in the US has a direct impact on the rest of the world and that sustainability, therefore, must be a global undertaking. I also asked her whether there was anything, which our school could do about sustainability that other schools she knew about were doing. She immediately identified composting, while also noting that the use energy on the campus could be improved and that we had a long way to go before attaining sustainability. She said that our campus is â€Å"over-lit† in many areas and that, even when the sun was out in force, there at least four lights on in the hallways. She noted that Bowdoin College has already decreased their use of electricity in the last twelve months by some 17%, while the use of electricity at our campus has been increasing as the population continues to increase. However, she also noted that, in spite of the campus population growing, she does think that there is room for the campus to make tremendous steps towards energy saving. Her answer led me to ask her about the steps that she thinks students, staff, and faculty can take to ensure the campus is more sustainable. In her opinion, the most important thing at the moment is about switching off the lights after leaving one’s room, as well as the use of translucent roofing to light lecture halls during the day. Moreover, she also seems to think that computers on campus are left on the entire day even when not being used. Indeed, according to her estimates, switching off each computer when not in use would save the campus $50 every year, which would compute to $50,000 in electricity savings estimating the number of computers at one

The Institute Of Professional Sociologists Nigeria Essay Example for Free

The Institute Of Professional Sociologists Nigeria Essay Ever since Africa became a continent, most of her problems have been policy and policy management. First, it was the colonial policy makers who introduced the Indirect Rule system (as was the case of British colonial Administration) and the assimilation policy system (as was the case of the French colonial Administration).The Colonial masters adopted these policies largely because of administrative convenience and nothing more. They did not consider the social structure, the culture or the social thought of the African people. And it was little wonder that these policies left the continents in utter disarray. The people are still living under the burden of their consequences. The next anathema was the post-colonial imperialist policies that we term ‘Divide and Rule’. Many of the foreign policies relating to Africa in the past five decades fall within this spectrum. Today most policy makers, Governments and government apparatus in Africa seem to follow the trend of the colonial masters when formulating their policies .a case in point is the last fuel increment or subsidy removal in Nigeria. The people vehemently resisted the policy even if it were to their benefit. They would not want to know any long term or short term benefits or whatsoever. As long as the governments would not want to be people-centric, their policies will always meet with ardent resistance. Most policy finds their way through to the people who have little or no knowledge of the social thought or social systems as do the social scientists. Many politicians rely on armchair theorizing about what and what would or would not work. A policy made by a trial and error methodology does much harm, its makes the people as it were, a laboratory rat. Men are not rats and no one government or Authority should ever treat its people like one. That a particular ideas worked somewhere in the world, do not mean it can work else where. Man is enigmatic and so complex. Culture varies from place to place and globalization will not stop that. The differences among people may create the conflicts of interest, ethnic differences, xenophobia,’ we and they’ factors etc. However when properly perceived these seeming difference is a grand design of what forms the social systems, social thoughts, and the social structure of a people. If culture is a way of life of a people, which involves foods, clothing, Knowledge, idea etc why should someone force an Amala, or Tuwo (Local foods in Nigeria) into the throat of an Asian man? Who don’t know how they are made or how they are eaten? Meanwhile this is exactly what the colonial masters did. The indirect rule system and the system of Assimilation were forced through to the people, regardless they accepted it or not. And most Government in Africa inherited this ‘force it through attitude’. Their policies are tested on the people who they see as lab rats. And they are forced to accept it, whether they like it or not, whether it is compactable with their social systems or not. And because muscle and whips are exacted, the people accept it with malicious obedience. They accept the policy but break the rules. And as those who make these policies do all they can to make it work, those whom it is supposedly made for live how they have ever lived, and is making it not work. We now have is a cycle that has left the continent undeveloped for decades. The ways we proffer here are not exhaustive, as there are all other ways to solve the problem of underdevelopment in Africa. Meanwhile we present hereunder these measures that may revolutionize governance in Africa. The concept of research is almost alien to most African politicians. They wonder why their counterpart in the occidental and oriental worlds succeeds, and yet never know that research is the key to development. Social research in Africa is mostly either not founded or they are not encouraged. Worst still is the fact that most studies are being piloted by international donor/organizations who found these researches for their own sake. And their findings, whether real or doctored, becomes the only available data for all to peruse. If we most move ahead in Africa, governments and other agencies most begin to fund and pioneer research not just for its own sake, but for the sake of national or continental development . Social scientists are not just a group of academic puppets or parakeets as most politicians think. They have a good role to play in societal engineering, especially in developing societies of Africa. Instead of using the people as lab rats, the politician could use the knowledge and research ability of the social scientist, to orchestrate a pilot study or even a laboratory experiment for intended policies before they can be tagged a public policy. However the social scientist must avoid the temptation of using research as a propaganda tool. Rather He/she must hold sacrosanct the ethical value of the profession, and the confidence the people lay on him/her as a custodian of the social systems.

Gender Differences in Early Years Sector

Gender Differences in Early Years Sector Chapter 3 – Literature Review Introduction: The aim for this literature review is to examine the literature on the selected topic of men working in the early years sector and to the objectives of this research by acquire knowledge, through familiarising myself with the literature on the area. The objectives of this research are, to critically analyse the literature on Gender balanced workforce within in the early year’s sector. To explore what are the benefits to children of a more gender balanced childcare service and to identify are there any disadvantages? To identify practitioner’s views on why men in Ireland are not choosing to work in the early year’s sector and to identify practitioner’s views on how to encourage men into the childcare sector and finally to explore issues parents may have, if any on men working in the early year’s sector. Background: For many decades there has been a division of gender within the labour force. Commonly with men found in well paid occupations that are, highly skilled and that involve heavy work such as the construction or transport industries with female workers, on the other hand, have been found in caring nurturing occupations such as childcare, nursing or social work (Garrett, 1987). At present men are a very small percentage of the early year’s workforce in Ireland. Sources of data on the early years workforce show that men are at around 1 percent of the early year’s workforce in Ireland. Considering the huge changes in Ireland over the last decade it is surprising that this figure hasn’t really changed over the last ten years. So it isn’t surprising that also at present men are a small percentage of the childcare trainees in Ireland. Data gathered from research in other European countries shows some differences but men are usually well below 5 per cent of the early years workforce (see Cameron et al, 2003). This data from Europe also shows that Denmark has the highest proportion in Europe of male childcare workers, in Denmark men are 8% of the early year’s workforce. Benefits of a more gender balanced childcare workforce: The early years sector is not only a big employer in its own right but the early years sector is essential to enabling parents especially mothers to take up employment in the workforce. The childcare sector is, therefore, important to the achievement of gender equality in the workforce of Ireland. Increased participation of mothers in the labour market reduces child poverty and improves educational outcomes for children (see Penn et al, 2004). An important element of early years care and education is to promote inclusion and valuing diversity a more gender balanced workforce contests stereotypes and shows gender equality to young children. In this way, it is seen to enrich the quality of childcare (see Cameron et al, 1999; Moss, 2000). It is expected that in practice males will bring diverse skills to the workforce, reflecting on their own gendered rearing. (Jensen, 1996) argues that the quality of childcare is improved for children because it exposes them to diverse styles of playin g, caring and instructing. The literature frequently states that such diversity enriches the range of children’s experiences while attending an early years’ service. It is proposed that children can benefit from seeing a male in a caring, nurturing and responsible role, particularly in terms of their relationships with others, behaviours and attitudes. (Daycare Trust, 2002), Furthermore Miller (1986) draws our attention to the fact that a conflict of identity can be experienced by both male and female teachers; between teachers’ roles as ‘nurturers’ and ‘carers’ on one hand, and on the other hand their professional role as educators (as cited in Drudy, Martin, Woods O’ Flynn, 2005, p.23). The literature suggests that male childcare practitioners can be positive male role models for children these benefits are mostly spoken about in relation to the benefits for children of lone mothers as cited in Cameron, 2001, (Jensen, 1996) suggested that ‘the presence of male childcare workers could go some way towards providing constant, positive male role models for these children, as some kind of compensation for what is missing at home’ this is disputed by Christie (1998) as cited in Cameron, 2001 p. 435 Christie argues that ‘this model does not explain how, why, or for whom, male workers are expected to compensate, or whether compensation is possible’. Christie goes on to state, it may be wrong to assume that a child lacks a ‘father figure’ or other type of role model simply because they do not live with their father. And that it may not be realistic to expect a male worker to fulfil this role when such expectations are not placed on fema le childcare workers. Furthermore Owen (2003) states, it is unclear whether males provide role models for children by being as he say ‘traditional’ males in a female environment, Owen questions is it by engaging in so called ‘male’ play activities such as sport, or by challenging stereotypes by taking on a more traditionally ‘feminine’ caring and nurturing role. Further evidence to support such claims is provided by Bricheno and Thornton (2007) who found no indication that children even saw their teachers whether they are male or female as role models (p.394). Even though the concept of men in childcare being role models may be weak, it is supported by parents, early years employers, and the general public (Daycare Trust, 2002). Every child is unique in their own individual way and has specific individual needs that need to be met in a responsive and appropriate manner by those who are caring for them. Children who are been cared for by Early Childhood Practitioners on a full-time basis within a pre-school setting are in their care for more than eight hours a day, therefore it is extremely important for Child care practitioners to meet their physical and emotional needs all the time in order to form close emotional bonds with children. According to Roberts (2010), childcare practitioners learn to recognize children’s emotional and physical cues and respond to them promptly and appropriately. By doing this she believed that practitioners allow for close emotional relationships to blossom (Roberts, 2010). As a result of these emotional relationships, Roberts (2010) also believed that they pave the way for children to develop healthily. This idea is highlighted by Benson et al (2009), who state that one of the most important contributors to healthy development is children developing close emotional relationships with a responsive and nurturing caregiver. Nowhere in this literature is it stated that gender affects the ability to care for a child. Barriers to men working in the early year’s sector: The literature suggests that main barrier to men working in the early year’s sector is the fact that there is such a low rate of pay and that childcare practitioners level of qualifications are not represented in their rate of pay as cited by RTE News online (18/2/2015), The association of childhood professionals said that over 25,000 people are working in the early years sector where the typical income is less than â‚ ¬11 an hour. Marian Quinn the associations chairperson stated that the situation is unsustainable because young people are choosing better paying careers instead of the early years. Furthermore the Irish Examiner (3/1/2015) argued that Representative bodies have been flooded with accounts of workers, qualified to degree level and with many years of experience, earning just â‚ ¬18,000 per annum. For a male who is the bread winner of a family this would not be sustainable Research by the Daycare Trust (2003) stated that nearly half of over 2000 adults that w ere interviewed said that better wages would encourage more males to work in the early years sector. Not surprisingly (Drudy, Martin, Woods et al., 2005,) found that In an Irish study of school-leavers and student teachers ‘low pay† was given as a primary reason for fewer males in primary teaching. Another prominent barrier to the lack of males working in the early years sector is the it is a female dominated sector and the notion that it is women’s work, it is easy to understand that being in a minority may be an uncomfortable experience, and data suggests that this could be one of the key issues discouraging men from working in the early years sector. Historically, early childhood education has been seen as synonymous with caring for and nurturing young children and, consequently, continues to be widely regarded as ‘women’s work’ (Murray, 1996, p.368). Furthermore Daycare Trust (1999) posits that â€Å"Childcare staffs are overwhelmingly women and are strikingly badly paid compared with other caring professionals despite the commitment and professionalism which exists within the industry. Staffs have poor conditions of work and do long hours with little access to training or support. Morale can be low and the best often leave for better prospects e lsewhere.† Interestingly Cameron (2001) acknowledges and asserts that if early childhood work was re-examined, with ‘higher professional status and a higher rate of pay, it could be expected that there would be more male employees, fewer men in the token, isolated situation, and possibly less reason to move on quickly’ (p.444). Many Childcare positions are part-time and this also causes a barrier to males seeking employment in the early year’s sector. At the same time, the availability of part-time employment in the sector suits many women in the sector, a number of who work in childcare while their children are young. This motivation has been found to be particularly strong among childminders, who work on a self-employed basis (see Mooney et al, 2001ab). The high proportion of part-time jobs in the sector is thought to deter men and that they are more likely to seek full-time employment. According to Cameron, (2004). it is also evident that the men that do work in the early year’s sector are more likely to be found holding positions with older children in positions such as after school care rather than working with babies and younger children, This has been explained with reference to men’s preference for working with older children and choosing roles in education more so than caring roles. What needs to be done to increase the numbers of men working in the early year’s sector? As cited by Fine-Davis, et al (2005) highlights that there has been extensive backing for men to consider childcare as a career this was made clear by the European Commission (1992) which called on Member States to encourage and support increased participation by men in the care and upbringing of children. This theme was again encouraged in the White Paper on European Social Policy, A Way Forward for the Union (European Commission, 1994), and by the European Commission Network on Childcare (1990). It was found that despite the unquestionable support for increasing the number of men working in the childcare sector, the recruitment of men into the childcare field has not gained momentum. It has been suggested that particular attention should be focused on recruiting men into this area of childcare but as discussed earlier the barriers such as rate of pay, the lack of professional status associated with the profession and the current lack of males currently employed within the sector ar e barriers that need to be overcome before the possibility of men entering the early years workforce. Cameron, (1997) states that â€Å"It would appear from the example of Danish childcare centres that where the work has been re-evaluated as valuable, and as appropriate for a mixed-gender workforce, the perception of ‘mothering and childcare equals low value work’ no longer holds as a principal motivation for employment in childcare work† (1997a: 64-65). Fine-Davis, et al (2005), also suggests that it is evident that males will not be attracted to the field unless the salaries increase. At present Irish parents are paying some of the highest childcare fees in Europe, this isn’t because Ireland has the most costly childcare in Europe, but because the Irish government invests such a small percentage of GDP. Research also found that many early years’ employers acknowledge that the barriers to recruiting men into the early years sector are significant but they do not see that it is their duty to encourage men into the early year’s sector, but that responsibility lies with the Government, that the government needs to encourage this through advertising or through services such as careers education and guidance (see Rolfe et al., 2003). As cited by RTE News online (2015) Professor Noirin Hayes stated that the current investment in childcare of 0.1% of GDP compared to our European counterpart’s investment of 0.7% is not appropriate, addingchildcare was not a business but a social service and that needs to be recognised. Furthermore to this as cited by the Irish Times (2015) Chief executive of Early Childhood Ireland,Teresa Heeney, said crà ¨che workers that are qualified to degree level 7 or level 8 with many years of valuable experience are being paid as little as â‚ ¬18,000 per year. Furthermore the Irish times also cited Marian Quinn (Chairperson of the Association of Childhood Professionals) she said,â€Å"We are losing many qualified, and skilled experienced and knowledgeable people who can at afford to remain in the profession of childcare. Things need to change on a government level for it to have any impact on the barriers to men working in the childcare sector. â€Å"Equal opportunity needs to be a two-way process, as women move into male dominated areas and are encouraged to aspire to management positions, men should be encouraged into childcare and education, so that male participation becomes the norm rather than the exception.† (Thurtle et al, 1998: 632) Parents views of a more gender balanced early year’s sector: The literature suggests that parents recognise the benefits of a more gender balanced early year’s work force as cited by Cameron et al, (1999) some parents believed men and women had different skills in childcare, with men more able to engage in physical and fun activities, and women seen as more skilled in caring, nurturing and planning. But unfortunately the stigma of it being women’s work and the pre-conceptions that it is not a role suited to males still prevails. Even though parents and the general public mostly support the employment of more males in the early years sector, mainly on the grounds that males provide positive role models, there is also an element of concern identified through research from parents, college lecturers and the general public about the possible abuse from male practitioners (Thurtle and Jennings, 1998; Cameron et al., 1999). Penn and McQuail,1997concour with this stating that the topic of sexual abuse is undoubtedly a most important iss ue discouraging men from seeking employment in the early years sector. Male practitioners working with young children have reported being probed on their motives, and mistrusted of having perverse sexual intentions but there is no research out there that support any of these concerns and furthermore research by the Daycare Trust (2003) found that, although 77 per cent of participants, who included parents of children attending early years services, were in favour of more males working in the sector, 57 per cent said that one of the key barriers to men’s employment was the risk of paedophiles working with children’ and 56 per cent agreed that ‘people could be suspicious of a man working in childcare’ Owen, 2003 argues that this is somewhat unexpected given that cases of sexual abuse in early years sector are exceptionally rare, and that they do not all involve men. Conclusion: In concluding this literature review on men working in the early years sector it is evident through the literature that there are strong beliefs in the benefits of a more gender balanced early years workforce for the children and the workforce of the sector. Majority of the literature on the topic of men working in the early year’s sector seemed to focus on the range of perceived benefits, with particular focus on the benefits to children that attend early year’s services, but there was also a small focus on the benefits to the workforce and for the men that work in the sector. As cited by Scott and colleagues, research in the area of employment in the early year’s sector has focused more on the role of the sector in enabling women to participate in paid employment (Scott et al, 2000). The literature on the barriers to men working in the early years sector was also examined here we found how pay and the lack of professional status were the main barriers to men wo rking in the early years sector. Following this we explored the strategies that were researched on ways to encourage men to see the early year’s sector as a viable career prospect it was discussed that more would have to be done on a government level for any changes to be prompted. Finally the area of the views of parents was explored in this section it came to light that parents did see the benefits to a more gender balanced early year’s workforce but that some parents still had concerns when it came to the safety of their children. It also became very clear throughout the process of this literature review that because of the small percentage of men employed in the early years and the fact that there are very few examples of a mixed-gender workforce, these have not been examined empirically. The researcher was unable to source studies which explored the benefits of a mixed gender workforce through empirical research. Rather, the benefits identified are largely indicative and based on anecdotal evidence. The researcher also noted a lack of research or studies carried out on this area in Ireland. Thus forming an important research agenda for the future, it suggests a need for focused research on mixed gender workforces in childcare, to more accurately identify the benefits to children, parents and the workforce in Ireland.

Dulce et Decorum est Essay -- English Literature

Dulce et Decorum est The poet reacts to the war by turning normal poetic language in to something that appears normal on the surface but in reality is tainted. The poet also breaks from normal poetry to show society the normal images of war. The ability to move the reader makes the poem work which aids the reader in to understanding the false propaganda. The poem is about soldiers in trench warfare and is a great example of writing graphically to show the horrific side of war yet being completely truthful. The poet does not withhold any information from the reader and conveys what it was like to fight in the War. The poet shows the pain in the poem. His tone, depression, lack of hope reveals his message. He uses long sentences and metaphor to show the tires soldiers. Picturing ‘old beggar under sacks’ tells us what war has done to them. It also tells us they are battle weary and scared of what is ahead of them. The use of similes in the first stanza allows the reader to understand the anguish of war. The poet is able to use words the words to paint a vivid and terrifying picture of trench warfare in the mind of the reader. The Hags is connected with the word beggers as they both outcasts in society. What's more words like beggers, hags and blood-shod shows what the war has done to the soldiers of war.. Through his use of vivid words and portrayal it makes us understand the effects of war and what it involves. The Stanza continues ‘Till on the haunting flares’, this suggests that the soldiers are possibly disturbed and are being haunted by the flares. The last line further shows the effects of war, the soldiers are deaf to the gas shells dropping right behind them. In the second stanza the poem begin... ...ers were once the ‘children ardent for some desperate glory.’ ‘Children’ here is used as the same reason as ‘boys’, who were brainwashed in to sacrificing their lives. The innocent are willing to believe in the lie about the war, but the war was totally different first hand hence the anger towards those who propagated dying for your country in being noble. ‘The old Lie’ the poet users a capital ‘L’ in lie. This puts the war in perspective of being glorious and patriotic. The readers attention does not wonder during the poem because of the poets consistent imagery. By the end of the poem the reader can fully appreciate the irony between the truth of what happens at the Trenches and the lie being told at home. The whole poem is contradictory to what was being spread with ‘Dulce et Decorum est.’ (It is a sweet and glorious thing to die for your country.)

Growing Years Essay

People come and people go, moments are gone through and experiences are created. What only remains are memories ,and for that reason these growing years are considered to be golden. Growing up is the most important aspect of an individual’s life as it determines on their state of mind and how they look at life when they are old enough. Some go through a hard time whereas some may just cruise through a good life. Life is definitely a long journey but how we go about it is up to us, we see a lot of what life has to offer us at the time of childhood and teenage years. A lot of attractions and distractions, basically the good things and the bad and how these influence us. I have gone through different situations in my life, have had to make pretty tough choices ,but one of the best things I’ve learnt from these growing years is that your life is never at a stand still even when you think it is. The modern world has loads to offer teenagers like me. But at the same time I would like to include myself to agree on the fact that growing up as a person from within isn’t an easy task. I’ve found myself in different instances at a stage where I don’t seem to be agreeing with my parents. Well obviously my mind is developing and I have opinions of my own. This did lead into quarrels at times, its not that I may necessarily be wrong but I don’t think anyone’s parents would like their child to not agree with them on any aspect. The solution that I found to this problem was to be more understanding to thoughts and opinions that people shared with me. I could consider myself lucky to go on that path because I’ve come across quite a few people who have thought in another sense and are perhaps now leading messed up lives at home and away. But then again that’s all part of growing up, it could be scary at times but life has much more to offer than just a scare. My growing up like anyone else’s has its own ups and downs, but lucky for me I’ve learnt from my older brother’s experiences and have been cautious into not making the same mistakes as he has made. We come across many friends in this period of life, many come, couple of them remain in our present time but only some or none remain as you move on all the way. Yes when we’re young we’re all joyful and think that nothing can ever affect our friendship and lifestyle. But what we forget is that those who are surrounding us are growing up too, and they begin to think differently and that’s what fade’s them away from us. No doubt that I’ve learnt quite a lot from my friends but one regret would be there that some of them aren’t present in the bonds of friendship around me. Due to all the distractions that growing up has had on me, I’ve had a conflict with education and living reality itself. I guess I was just taking it too easy and was playing around with the responsibilities that were put upon me. Each year that you grow certain tasks are handed to you, be it from your parents or life itself. Whereas at the same time certain things are expected from you. I am quite sure that I personally never was in favour of this. Probably that could’ve been one of the reasons I quarreled with my folks. I guess I just couldn’t live up to the expectations. For instance, when I was out with my friends I had to be home by a certain time. I thought of this as reasonable to an extent but sometimes I went over my curfew. Obviously this wasn’t acceptable from my parents as it was heading me towards indiscipline. I always thought that a couple of years back I was invincible and nothing but good things could come out of what I was doing, basically I was happy in satisfying myself. Therefore I guess I was looking for some space of my own which my parents weren’t willing to give me at that point of time which would be my early teenage years. But now I realize that all I was doing was just neglecting my tasks and duties. Life cannot be lived with one owns satisfaction and happiness, its also about sacrifice, sacrifice that my parents have made in order to help me live a good life, as they think of my future and happiness before their own and perhaps I have to carry out these values to a family of my own. But yea I was too young then and still am now but I can certainly say that I’m in a better sense of mind to understand these things now. For this reason now I understand why my parents decided to give me this space now as I could use it more rightly. I’ve been infatuated with material things and have gotten lost in the unreal world of dreams and fantasies. More importantly my teenage years brought about certain feelings and emotions in me that made me interact with the opposite sex. Definitely this is a normal feeling and there’s nothing wrong with it. Going on dates and having serious relationships with girls was another aspect of my growing up. This perhaps made me well versed with the word â€Å"love† but what I’ve experienced with most girls was just infatuation and a phase that eventually had to fade away. This all is a part of growing up, but when it begins to interfere with your personal life or becomes a part of your personal life then I guess things just seem to be all messed up. Your moods and attitudes can easily alter at any given moment. In my case I could see this coming and still couldn’t take control of it. A really funny situation I guess for many but for me it was just a result of getting too involved in something that never was. I devoted a large amount of my time on telephones and going out which in the end added up to nothing. While making hasty decisions I never really thought twice or overlooked at what I was doing after a while. The mess began to add up and soon I found myself lagging behind in stuff that really mattered for me as a person as I didn’t give much attention to it previously. I still do mostly all these things but within boundaries and don’t make it control my lifestyle as now I perhaps am in control of things and myself. Opening myself up as a person was never a problem but opening up to the wrong people was a mistake that I constantly committed and trusting the wrong people too was involved in this. In a way I remain happy at the fact that I’ve gone through experiences such as these at a young age, as it keeps me prepared for the future. Neglecting my duties as a growing child ,I constantly came across a lot of troubles ,this included studies ,social life etc. There came times when my parents were really unhappy with me and my future remained a question mark in their minds as it built a lot of tension within them. But what I’m grateful about is that they never lost faith in me and they constantly always explained to me about what was right and always heard my side of the story too. Perhaps because of their love and affection it was a quick process for me to realize my mistakes and undo my way of thinking. I’ve at times tried to make my brother as my idle and live the way he did, in a quite reserved but jovial way. There have been instances where I just wanted to be in my brother’s shoes as I felt that he handled himself quite well while he was growing up. According to me he did everything at the right time and that’s why he enjoyed quite a bit. But I can’t escape the fact that him n me are two different personalities and we just have to be our own people. I hear from a lot of people who are elder to me, that my age is the best as I don’t have to worry about a lot of stuff. It brings upon confusion to me as I think the responsibilities that are on me ar en’t too easy to fulfill though they’re necessary. But as a growing child, I explored a lot that perhaps people my age wouldn’t. Main reason for this being that I was quite curious and being the youngest in my family always accustomed me to what elders usually do and how they behave. It was serious conflict as one hand I was neglecting my given duties and on the other hand I intended on doing things that I wasn’t capable of. Eventually I realize that being older than I already am isn’t an easy task either and probably when I do come to that age I would wish to be where I am right now. Keeping that in mind, I’ve experienced times that I’ve wished and wanted to act older than I already am. But what I was leaving behind only I know. That of being a kid and enjoying the best of what it has to offer. Being a kid or a teenager, I always hated to lose and I still do, be it anything perhaps at studies or at sport, or losing friends. But while growing up you’ve to accept to lose at times and you’ve to be open to that fact. Understanding that I guess has helped me into not being stuck up and has helped me in growing further as a person. In my years of growing up I have come across many instances that I’ve witnessed people breaking up their relationships with each other just over meaningless arguments. Having fights is normal but it goes over limit when it starts effecting the way two people think about each other. There has to be space for understanding certain things as every person has his/her own opinions over matters. But many yet remain oblivious to this. That’s why perhaps it is easy to ruin things but hard to keep it together. I sometimes sit to think about most of those teenagers who have slit their wrists and committed suicide in depression, well in their case they never liked losing either and resorted into ending their life. I can probably relate to some teenager problems considering I’m in the same age group and perhaps have gone through the same at some stage, but my upbringing has excluded the thought of suicide from me. Everything has to come to an end at one point in time and that refers to our lives as well, so we should wait until then. That’s why we teenagers are always told that there’s a time for everything. In my times of growing up, I’ve had a lot of fun even through all the hardships that have come along my way. Going to gigs and parties with friends was no more of an exciting thing to me as before. Since I’ve cut down on that there’s more value to it now then there was before. One of the most important tasks that I’ve learnt in my journey of growing up is setting priorities. Something I wasn’t good at doing so sometime back. There are loads of distractions available to get you off your way but if you have your priorities set out I don’t think you could go off track. Part of becoming an adult brings a lot of confusion in our minds. There come times when people have asked me what I’ve wanted to be when I grow up, and I’m left with no answer. I realize I can’t be young all my life but it just seems with all the competition around I’m growing up much faster than I should be. But that’s how this modernized world works, and I could probably deny the fact but cant hide from it. Accepting this I’ve got an ambition, something that I hope to become and achieve. But I realize that this task isn’t easy for some people and this has helped me into understanding the problems that some teenagers go through. They cant deal with the pressure and therefore breakdown into depression. Understanding aspects like these and looking into my own life, it has been quite easy to give way to other people’s opinions and sometimes accept what someone else says on top of your own word. Being unselfish is a part of growing up too. These values instilled in me thankfully is to my advantage and would perhaps benefit me in my future. There sure have been times when I just have been fed up of happenings around me and wished that everything should just stop. At the end of things I still would have to get on with my life and deal with my problems as that’s part of growing up. I do wish that sometimes things should be quite different from what they are, but then if life had to be so predictable there wouldn’t be any fun left in life itself. Believing in something of this sort has made me want to enjoy life as it comes even through its good times and bad. Understanding that behind every face there’s a story, and that’s why some people act in the manner that they do, we have to be open to whatever this life has to offer us. Growing up isn’t an easy task but how would we ever know where our silver lining lies if we don’t want to grow up. These growing years are considered golden as they’re times once lived they can never come back. We have the ability at times like these to make the most of our lives and should definitely use it. We never stop learning and that’s why everyday we look at our life through a different light. Every year that I grow it brings me closer to my adult age and cuts off a year from my life. There surely is a time for everything and in life there are no short cuts to that. From now on I would like to take things as they come and enjoy myself under those means. Therefore I would like to live my life to the maximum level and in the right manner. I’m still growing and s o far the journey has been incredible.

Block Scheduling

UNION UNIVERSITY THE IMPACT OF BLOCK SCHEDULING VERSUS TRADITIONAL SCHEDULING ON STUDENT ACHIEVEMENT A REVIEW OF LITERATURE SUBITTED TO DR. BENNY TUCKER IN PARTIAL FULFILLMENT OF THE REQUIREMENTS OF EDU 675 CAPSTONE RESEARCH SEMINAR BY LELA BINGHAM MAY 9, 2012 Chapter 1 Introduction As administrators and educators have researched ways to use time more productively, major changes have been occurring in high school schedules. Within the context of education reform, one of the attributes of the traditional educational system that has been a focus for systemic change has been the use of time (Trenta & Newman, 2002).In Nichols’ (2005) research, it’s noted that one of the most important concerns expressed in A Nation at Risk report was related to how effectively classroom instruction time was being utilized in America’s schools. Evans, Tokarczyk, Rice & McCray (2002) indicated that this report offered many recommendations for school reform initiatives, includin g restructuring for more effective use of school time and increased concentration on core academic subjects.According to Lawrence and McPherson (2000), administrators and teachers in America have been criticized regarding the poor use of school time since the 1980’s (p. 178). Maltese, Dexter, Tai, and Sadler (2007) found that approximately 66. 7% of high school graduates from the class of 2004 enrolled in colleges or universities, the importance of high school as a means to prepare students for a successful college experience is essential (p. 1).According to Zepeda and Mayers (2006), â€Å"as the accountability bar rises, schools continue to explore avenues for increasing student achievement, and school leaders have examined new teaching methods, emerging technologies, and alternate scheduling patterns to improve the teaching and learning processes† (p. 137). Nichols (2005) states that in response to A Nation at Risk report, many concerned educators and community leade rs at all levels argued that schools should increase the length of the school day and the school year and simultaneously restructure the traditional daily schedule.Trenta & Newman (2002) wrote that while some efforts have focused on seeking ways to add time to the academic year and the academic day, other efforts have focused on maximizing the time already in the calendar (p. 54). As schools seek to determine the most effective teaching strategies to increase student achievement, Zepeda and Mayers (2001) says one especially attractive option has been block scheduling. This scheduling is in effect in approximately 30 percent of the nation’s secondary schools. What is block-scheduling? â€Å"Block-scheduling is a method of scheduling the six-hour school day into â€Å"blocks† of class time.Sometimes referred to as Extended-Period Schedules, block scheduling is supported by advocates because it keeps students in class for longer periods of time, reduces the amount st udents spend transitioning between classes, and gives students and teachers more opportunities to get to know each other (www. education. com). † Rettig (2005) indicated that the most common type of class schedule used in America’s secondary schools is the traditional schedule, whereby classes usually meet daily and students attend six, seven, or eight classes per day (Two Leading†¦, para. 1).According to Queen (2000), there are necessary steps and they remain imperative for schools examining the possibility of moving to a block scheduling (p. 221). Gruber and Onwuegbuzie (2001) reported that an increase in block scheduling in the past decade has been attributed to factors such as the input from the business community calling for â€Å"fundamental change† in education (p. 33). Although block-scheduling has been discussed for a few decades, it has become a subject of considerable debate. There is a plethora of factors to impact student’s achievement bu t this research will focus on classroom scheduling.The purpose of this study is to provide an assessment of the relationship with school scheduling and student’s achievement. For the purposes of this paper, I define student achievement as any positive result(s) occurring to the student because of the schooling process. Chapter 2 Literature Review According to Kienholz, Segal and Yellin (2003) changes in approaches to teaching and learning are common in schools as we strive to improve the education that we are providing our students, as well as help them to achieve higher levels of success.In the past decade or so, block scheduling has become one of the most popular scheduling alternatives to the traditional schedule previously held by many districts. Block scheduling is not new on the block. It can be traced back to the early 1960s when J. Lloyd Trump of the Oregon department of Education urged that the school schedule be reexamined to consider longer class periods as a way o f improving instruction (Kienholz et al. , 2003, p. 62). When following the block schedule, Rikard & Bannville (2005) stated that schools devote larger periods of time, often 90 minutes instead of 50 to 55 minutes, to each class period.Block scheduling has been configured in different formats, including the 4 x 4 and AB formats. Under the AB format, students attend classes for approximately 95 minutes on alternate days, while on the 4 x 4 format students attend the same four blocked classes each day for 90 consecutive days once per year (p. 26). As a result, students have fewer classes per day or term, and teachers and students should be able to focus more deeply on the material.While still relatively new in the world of education, block scheduling has been the cause for much debate over whether it increases student achievement or not. While the aim is to provide teachers and students with larger, uninterrupted periods of time with which to delve deeper into class content and pr actice. The block has the potential to increase student learning but only with effective usage of time. This will help answer the questions about the impact lock scheduling has on success (Rikard & Banville, 2005, p. 33). The main findings of the esearch for this paper present information on both sides of this argument, and discuss the block schedule with relation to students, parents and teachers perceptions, advantages and disadvantages and finally, student achievement (Rikard & Banville, 2005). Students, Parents and Teachers Perceptions As Rikard and Banville (2005) findings were â€Å"consistent with previous research findings, teacher perceptions indicated their reduced stress levels, a decline in student absenteeism and tardiness, and reduced student behavior problems after changing to block scheduling from a traditional format.Sixty six percent of teacher perceived that students learned more in blocked versus traditional classes but they had no documented evidence of that conclusion (p. 26)†. Jones (2000) research from a high school in Southern Georgia had a one-week trial period in which students and teachers participated in block schedule. In the week subsequent to the trial period, a survey was issued to students by administration to determine the social validity of the program. Students were not required to participate in the survey.If a student chose to do so, however, they would remain anonymous. At the time the survey was administered, 1,205 students (586 males and 609 females) elected to participate in the survey. This accounted for 57% of students that were enrolled in the high school at the time of the study. Jones’ study included various questions on the survey, with the last addressing whether or not block scheduling was an acceptable alternative to traditional scheduling. The scale by which students answered ranged from 1-5 with 1 being most agreeable and 5 strongly disagreeing.The mean score was 2. 85, which leaned mo re toward students in agreement of the change. However, it was close enough to the median that it could not be considered a significant enough difference to determine the social validity of the trial period (Jones, 2000). Veal and Flinders (2001) executed a study that was conducted in a high school with three contiguous schedule types. Teachers, parents and students perceptions were ascertained to determine the impact of scheduling change on teachers and their classroom practices.The usage of Likert scale surveys, interviews, classrooms observations, and text data were used to compile a picture of how and why teachers adjusted to the change in schedule (p. 21). Chi-square and ANOVA analyses comparing block, hybrid, and traditional teachers found significant differences in four areas: 1) changes in teaching methods, 2) opportunities for reflection, 3) relationship with students, and 4) levels of anxiety. According to responses from all surveys, interviews, and observational data, ins tructional methods for most of the teachers with block classes changed (Veal & Flinders, p. 6). A study by Adams and Salvaterra (1998) included 67 teachers in four block scheduled high schools in Pennsylvania to see how the teachers perceived the block schedule, and whether or not they changed their instructional practices to accommodate that schedule. Some teachers felt unprepared for the schedule change, and were worried about being able to cover all of the content that they were accustomed to covering. For some, they still felt that â€Å"the textbook drives the curriculum; a sense of urgency to cover the book persists† (Method section, para. 2).The teachers that felt they had not received enough training for the block schedule showed some resistance to shifting from traditional schedule of content or continued to use activities that did not fit well under the new schedule (Results and Discussion section, para. 8). Adams and Salvaterra found that while some teachers fe lt that the block schedule was a great fit and looked for ways to use it to its fullest, one main finding was that â€Å"Teachers in all four schools identified a need for staff development, particularly in pedagogical techniques such as cooperative and integrated learning† (The Role of Staff Development, para. ). Zepeda and Mayers (2001) administered a study of 31 first-year teachers in the Midwest, all teaching on the 4 x 4 block schedule. Each of these teachers worked at a racially diverse school of 1,200 to 2,000 students and had graduated within three months of beginning to teach. Zepeda and Mayers conducted interviews with these teachers at the beginning, middle, and end of year to get their perceptions of the block schedule. Only the teachers were interviewed, so administrative and student feedback was not included.These new teachers found that they were â€Å"having difficulties in adjusting their instruction to the extended block periods, various instructions throug hout the period, and running out of materials and/or activities before the end of the period (Analysis of the Data section, para. 2). These teachers did not think that they possessed the repertoire of activities needed to successfully carry out a class on the block schedule, and they also expressed concern about student discipline and their inability to keep activities running smoothly (Adjusting Instruction section, para. 5). Later in this study, teachers also expressed feelings of being unprepared to assess students effectively on the block schedule (Zepeda & Mayers, 2001). Veldman (2002) looks at the information from Coopersville High School (CHS) as they transitioned from a traditional, 7-period a day schedule to a particular type of block schedule (A/B Block). On one day, students would attend 4 classes, while on the following day, 3 classes with study hall imbedded therein.After four years of being on the A/B Block schedule, the school system found that there were several scheduling concerns that needed to be addressed. In response to the concerns, the school system researched and surveyed and created a new form of scheduling that combined the best aspects of both traditional and block schedules per Veldman (2002). The new schedule, known as the A/B/C Schedule allowed for more instructional time during the duration of the school year. As opposed to A/B Block Scheduling, which gives 90 days of classroom instruction, the A/B/C Schedule allows for 30 additional instructional days.In preparation for the implementation of the new schedule, Coopersville High School (CHS) provided professional development to faculty that enriched instructional techniques and teaching strategies and focused on learning styles. CHS attributed much of the success of the program to an outpouring of communication among all stakeholders. Although test scores were not available at the time of the study, Veldman states that the new schedule was proving to be a success with teachers and students alike.According to Jenkins, Queen and Algozzine (2002), it can be argued that because of the additional instructional time received on a block schedule, teachers have more of an opportunity to utilize an assortment of instructional strategies and techniques in the classroom. In order to determine if this was true, a study was conducted to inquire of teachers the types of instructional strategies used in their classrooms. Teachers from both block and traditional schedules were surveyed and responses were compared (p. 196).Jenkins et al. findings also revealed that there were no real similarities in the opinions of teachers on both block and traditional schedules in regards to teaching strategies. According to the survey responses, teachers from both sides of the spectrum maintain the same types and varieties of teaching strategies, regardless of the schedule in which curriculum is being taught. Another study conducted by Payne (1996) involved a questionnaire for faculty and students whose school was on an â€Å"alternating day† block schedule.This schedule allowed for students to attend a scheduled set of classes, on a block schedule, one day with a different set of classes on the following day. The results of the questionnaire showed that faculty felt that more instructional time allowed for more material to be presented in the classroom. They were not pressed to get a certain amount of material and/or standards presented in smaller increments in the day. Payne concluded that both faculty and students were satisfied with the schedule and felt that it was a success.In a study of students with different academic profiles, Marchant and Paulson (2001) focused on the student perceptions of their alternating, A/B block schedule. Marchant and Paulson gave questionnaires to 2191 high school students in an upper class Midwest suburban high school. They wanted to know what the students perceptions of the block were in relation to areas such as behav ior, student-teacher relationships, success, and their support for the block schedule. Students were broken up into clusters relating to whether they were high or low-achieving in school, and hether they were happy, displeased, or apathetic about their success. Marchant and Paulson finding suggest that those who were happy and already successful, responded more positively in all categories on the questionnaire, while nearly the opposite was true for the lower-achieving students, â€Å"In particular, students who were average or high achievers, were satisfied with their achievement, and believes school is important had the highest levels of school functioning and the highest support for block scheduling† (Discussion section, para. ), while, in contrast, â€Å"Students who were the lowest achievers had the lowest support for block scheduling, worst teacher relations, and worst perceptions of student behavior† (Discussion section, para. 1). According to Shortt and Thayer (1998/1999), a survey was conducted by the Virginia Department of Education, only 1 percent of the responding teachers and 5 percent of the responding administrators indicated that block scheduling had a negative impact on standardized test scores. Shortt and Thayer stated that the data they collected indicated that teachers, administrators, and students were positive toward block scheduling.Rikard and Banville (2005) interviewed fifteen physical education teachers at their school sites from eight high schools located in a southeastern school district in the United States (pg. 26). Consistent with previous research findings, teacher perceptions indicated their reduced stress levels, a decline in student absenteeism and tardiness, and reduced student behavior problems after changing to block scheduling from a traditional format. Sixty six percent of teachers perceived that students learned more in blocked versus traditional classes but they had no documented evidence of that conclusi on per Rikard and Banville (pg. 6). In Persin’s (2002) research, he researched student attitudes toward web-assisted instruction or usage of computer animations and graphics versus text-based or mental models. The students responded to questions with answer options ranging from (1) strongly agree to (4) strongly disagree. â€Å"The participant’s overall attitude toward internet-assisted instruction was 1. 93, which is slightly higher than an â€Å"agree† response since â€Å"strongly agree† is rated at 1. 00. Also, attitudes based on gender were computed with female students having a slightly more positive attitude toward internet-assisted nstruction than males, although the difference in gender group attitudes was not considered significant at alpha = . 05 (Persin, 2002, p. 65)†. Jenkins, Queen and Algozzine’s (2002) research, â€Å"To block or not to block: That’s not the Question, was to compare teachers’ opinions about the ir preparation for using various instructional practices as well as their use of those practices and the appropriateness of employing them as part of block and traditional teaching schedules.Teachers working in block-scheduled high schools surveys were compared with those of their peers teaching in traditional schedule classes. Jenkins et al. study included 2,000 teachers (N = 2,167) North Carolina high school teachers participated in this research; 1,031 taught in block-schedule programs and the remainder taught on the traditional schedule for at least three years. Comparisons were made between their opinions on instructional practices, appropriateness of those methods, and their level of training in those methods (p. 98). Responses to the level of use of various instructional methods showed very similar answers, except that for peer coaching/peer tutoring, â€Å"teachers on the block schedule reported a higher use of this strategy than id their peers teaching with a traditional s chedule† (p. 198). When answering questions about the appropriateness of instructional methods, again, answers were very similar. However, â€Å"teachers on the block schedule reported a higher appropriateness of† (p. 98) using projects than teachers on the traditional schedule. In terms of training for using different instructional practices, there were no significant differences in the answers (Jenkins, et al. 2002) A study involving student perception of the block schedule was conducted by Slate and Jones (2000). This study used 1205 southern Georgia high school students and asked them what they thought of the block schedule after a one week trial period.Although this was a brief introduction to the schedule, this study provided data for those considering moving a school to the block schedule from students who had actually had a taste of the schedule, instead of simply having it explained to them. Participation was on a voluntary basis, and data could only be taken f rom those who chose to participate, making the sample less representative. One disadvantage noted by the students was that they had â€Å"difficulty paying attention through the longer class periods† (Overall Results section, para. 1).The study had a positive outcome, as many more students reported advantages than reported disadvantages (Overall Results section, para. 2). However, some interesting information was that while â€Å"Students reported that the block schedule had important advantages, especially increase time for study, and relatively few disadvantages, they reported that block scheduling was only a slightly acceptable alternative to traditional scheduling. Some expressed a slight preference for traditional scheduling (Slate & Jones, 2000, Discussion section, para. 1).Santos and Rettig addressed special education teachers’ perceptions of block scheduling which included the A/B block and the 4/4 semester plan. They interviewed 18 special education teach ers operating as department chairs in Virginia high schools. Nine of these teachers were serving in alternate-day (A/B) schools and nine in 4/4 schools. These schools had operated on this scheduling between 1 and 3 years. (What about Special education†¦section, para 2). The block scheduling was chosen over the traditional schedules in which the department chairs had worked.All nine 4/4 department heads expressed a preference and six of nine department chairs operating in the A/B plan preferred this variation of block scheduling over the single-period schedules (Santos & Rettig, 1999, Special Educators Speak Out section, para. 1) . Advantages and Disadvantages Despite its advantages, as Bryant & Bryant (2000) mentioned, block scheduling remains only another time-management tool unless classroom teaching/learning interactions also change. Block scheduling does provide more time with few students per classroom.It requires different instructional approaches and allows teach ers to use various strategies in a single period (p. 9) Weller & McLeskey (2000) writes that teachers agreed that within the context of a block schedule, team teaching aids greatly in including students with high incidence disabilities in general education classrooms, and assists in meeting the educational needs of all students (p. 213). Maltese, Dexter, Tai, and Sadler (2007) studied how traditional and block schedules prepared students for science in college classes.Referencing the numerical data in the form of student scores, and collecting qualitative data and opinions through student surveys, their study concluded that there were points to be made for both schedules, but that neither was proven to be noticeably more successful than the other in terms of the students’ level of preparation. Advantages and disadvantages are discussed in research conducted by Kenney (2003), as she looks at the decisions of some schools to abandon the block schedule in favor of returning to the traditional schedule. She quotes R. B.Cobb, a professor at Colorado State University, as saying that the block schedule is â€Å"a grassroots movement. It seems to build its momentum based on the logic of it and a judgment call by community and educational leaders hat it just looks like it ought to do better† (para. 7). This statement relates both to the reasons for schools keeping and leaving the block schedule in this article. Schools continuing with the block schedule made that judgment call and felt that the schedule fit their needs better, and they recognized advantages in the block schedule.A student can complete 32 credits over the course of a four-year high school career. This allows four more than is possible with the seven-period day† (para. 9). These schools also felt that students were less stressed on the block schedule â€Å"†what the block does is create a climate in which the kids feel a lot less stress†¦not worrying about seven differ ent classes, seven different sets of rules, and the possibility of several different tests a day† (para. 7). However, Kenney also discusses disadvantages to the block schedule, and reasons that schools and districts have moved away from this schedule.While extra time can be very beneficial in class, some administrators feel that â€Å"many teachers used the additional minutes as busy time† (Quick Abandonment section, para. 3). Additionally, there can be staffing issues in smaller schools, â€Å"when you go to the block, you have to hire more teachers, that’s what it boils down to† (A Money Decision section, para. 3), and then there is the fact that at this point, there is no conclusive proof that the block schedule is the more successful of the two schedules, â€Å"I’ve never really seen any clear, quantitative evidence that proved block scheduling was superior to the traditional schedule.There was a general feeling it was better but no one could p rove it† (Kenney, 2003, A Money Decision, para. 5). Santos and Rettig (1999) says â€Å"The rapid spread of this innovation brings with it both benefits and concerns with regard to programming for students with disabilities. Despite the amount of information available on block scheduling, little research exists on the benefits and drawbacks for special education (What about special education and block scheduling section, para. 1)†. One particular study focused on this exact issue: Is any one schedule better for students with disabilities?The study focused on a total of 620 students (160 students with disabilities and 460 students without disabilities) from schools on traditional schedules and schools on block schedules. The schools involved had to have been on a particular schedule for a minimum of 4 years. During the first year of the study, there were 8 traditional scheduled schools and 8 block scheduled schools (4 large schools, 2 medium-sized schools, and 2 small sc hools). At the end of the study, a total of 12 schools participated in the study. All schools involved were 9-12 grade high schools with similar attendance and graduation rates.All traditional scheduled schools had the same amount of time in a school day and the same student/teacher ratio. The same applies for the schools on block scheduling (Santos & Rettig, 1999). Santos and Rettig surveyed 281 teachers regarding the satisfaction of the schedule on which they taught. State mandated assessment test scores in reading, language, math, science, and social studies, GPA’s, ACT test scores were reviewed from all schools to assist in determining a difference in achievement of students on block and traditional schedules.After reviewing test scores and records, it was found that there was no difference between students with disabilities and students without disabilities between either block nor traditional schedules. According to the study, this may be due to the fact that teache rs on both schedule types were highly satisfied with the schedule on which their school was established. It was also discovered that teaching strategies were very similar and there was very little, if any, difference between teaching strategies.This information showed that what works for one student, may not work for another, and that it may be possible for the high achieving students to be successful in any environment. While this may not be a specific disadvantage for the block schedule, the fact that it does not always reach the low achieving student population is something to be considered when looking at the effectiveness of the schedule, or when there is the possibility of making the change to the block schedule (Santos & Rettig, 1999, Recommendations section, para. ) Student Achievement According to Queen (2000), the implementation of block scheduling was not initiated to affect student achievement directly. However, in many studies conducted nationally, the focus has bee n on how block scheduling influenced the academic achievement in students (p. 218). Shortt and Thayer (1998/1999) concluded that the test of any reform effort is a positive change in student achievement, in this age of accountability (p. 78).Effects on academics have been investigated primarily by studying the following: grade point average, honor roll achievement, numbers of failures and dropout rates and student’s performance on standardized tests (p. 80). Gruber and Onwuegbuzie (2001) conducted a study of student scores on the Georgia High School Graduation Test (GHSGT) at a school that made the transition from traditional to block scheduling. Scores were taken from before the schedule change in 1996-1997. The scores were then compared to after the schedule change of 1999-2000.While the comparison was hoped to be in favor of block schedule, the findings of the study was â€Å"no significant difference in GPA between the two groups†. Significantly higher scores were noted for students on the traditional schedule in all four core academic areas per Gruber and Onwuegbuzie. In 2005, Nichols conducted a study comparing the academic success of students in five high schools in a large urban area in English and Language arts. Over the course of this study, Nichols noted that the block schedule did not have a noticeable impact on the achievement of students in this content area.The schools went into the block schedule transition with noticeable GPA differences between them, and in â€Å"the 1998-1999 school year (several years after all schools converted to block formats), an overall mean difference in GPAs among the five schools remained† (p. 301). Similarly, GPA in the individual schools themselves did not differ greatly from year to year, and after the schedule transition. â€Å"Student GPAs for River High School and South High School were initially lower than for other high schools in the district and after block conversions, the students g enerally maintained the lower achievement† (p. 02). Unfortunately, the same was true for higher scoring students, â€Å"Oak High School and North High School were initially two of the higher achieving high schools in the district, and their conversion to block scheduling appeared to have little or no impact on student achievement in English or language arts courses† (p. 303). The one noticeable area of change that Nichols does notice is that the number of students taking English and language arts increased substantially after these schools changed to block schedule (p. 207).Lawrence and McPherson (2000) conducted a study comparing the traditional and block scheduling scores of students in two high schools in the same district on the North Carolina end of course tests in the core subjects. The two schools used were chosen because they were some of the first to adopt the block scheduling model. Data were taken on the traditional schedule from 1992 – 1994 and on the block schedule from 1994 – 1996. While evidence was expected to be found to support the success of the block schedule, this was not the case.For each of the four core subject test, â€Å"the mean score for the traditional schedule was consistently higher than the mean scores for the block schedule† (hypothesis 4, para. 2), however, there was significant support for the block schedule when â€Å"using the students’ final classroom grades for comparison (results, para. 4). The outcome could be based on many factors, such as tests being more closely tied to curriculum, or the standardized tests covering more material than students are used to on classroom tests (Lawrence & McPherson, 2000).While looking at standardized testing, the College Board Office of Research and Development did a study in 1998 that compared advanced placement test scores of students on both the block and the traditional schedule, and found that students on the traditional schedule score d better. Lawrence and McPherson noted that there were also differences in performance between students that study the coursework on the block schedule in the spring versus the fall semester, as they were more removed from the course at the time of the test, or had not yet completed the course when the test was administered.Zepeda and Mayers (2006) data favored those students on the traditional schedule. These studies indicate that research shows that pros exists for both types of schedules and more data needs to be gathered and analyzed in order to find a conclusive answer. The purpose of this project was to collect data from two different school districts operating on the block schedule at the high school level to obtain personal perceptions and opinions of the block schedule from both students and staff. These perceptions and opinions focused on whether or not the block schedule is seen as a positive class structure.Using a survey that was administered to both 10th grade students and staff at the participating schools, this data was collected and analyzed to make comparisons between student and staff perceptions, as well as noting any correlation between positive views and feelings of success on the block schedule. â€Å"The analysis of this study was completed in three phases: (1) an extensive search of the research concerning block scheduling, (2) construction of a matrix depicting the results of the search, and (3) analysis of the studies included in the matrix. p. 142)†. The goal of this study was to collect and analyze both quantitative and qualitative data in the form of responses obtained through survey questionnaires. It was expected that the data would lean in favor of the block schedule, and would show trends or specific areas in which teachers and/or students feel that the block schedule is helping them to be successful, as well as reasons, methods, or activities that the survey participants feel are particularly beneficial or effective wi th regard to the block schedule (Zepeda & Mayers, 2006).As Kenny (2003) mentioned in her article, Watauga High School located in North Carolina is using a schedule that combines the traditional and block schedule, and they have found similar advantages to the block classes. Watauga schedule includes both traditional and block length courses, and the number of classes that a student has each term depends upon how many blocks they choose to take. It is possible for them to take between four, all block, and eight, all traditional, classes at any given time.This schedule has been implemented because the school decided that their â€Å"philosophical position was that neither all block nor all traditional schedules best serve all students, teachers, and subjects†¦we review student performance, teacher opinion, and available research annually to determine how to best offer the particular course under review† (p. 49). Through this schedule, the school is showing that their i ntent is the best interest of their students and teachers, and the learning process.As they continue to work with the block schedule, they note that some of its advantages are â€Å"less homework each night because of a lighter course load† (p. 48), that it can help â€Å"at-risk students because they usually have two major academic blocks each semester, allowing them to focus more on academics because they have fewer courses† (p. 48), also that â€Å"block courses are taught in a more hands-on-way† (p. 48). In a detail evaluation of the Copernican plan, Carroll (1994) focused on the letter grades that students earned in their classes, and finds support for the block schedule looking at this end result for students in a course.The 2007 research done by Hynes-Hunter and Avery, focused on the effects of block scheduling on physical education although this topic has been neglected. Four high schools and one middle school located in the Northeast, and one high schoo l and one middle school located on the West Coast United States, were selected to participate in this study. When compared with exceptional physical education classes, students in this study spent more time in waiting and management, and less time receiving information and in daily activities (p. 174). Block scheduling creates enough time for students to develop physical skill and for teachers to measure and document skill development. Also, this scheduling allows students to spend adequate time on fitness development to actually experience improved physical fitness per researchers (p. 178). † Hynes-Hunter and Avery (2007) referenced the research from Claxton and Bryant (1996) clarified that it is a possibility that the ideal place for physical education in the new block will rely on the reputation of the existing physical education program.The authors felt that if physical education was regarded as a class which met no worthwhile objectives, the transition to block may be a c onvenient time to eliminate it. But if it was seen as a vital part of the school program, it has a good chance of assuming an equal role with other subjects (p. 175). Based on the research from Ron Persin (2002), â€Å"There was a dramatic increase in Physics Honors final exam scores when a high school physics teacher implemented a website for instruction in a block schedule.The site was used to deliver weekly lecture notes, plans, and assignments while also providing links to other sources of information in physics. More time in class was available for demonstrations, group lab activities, and multimedia presentations. The research involved comparing the final exam scores in honors physics during three consecutive four-year periods from 1991-2002. Class means showed that the exam scores decreased when the school switched from the seven period-day to the 4 by 4 block, and then increased when the block schedule was enhanced with Web-Assisted Instruction (p. 1)†. In yet another study, two types of block schedules (4Ãâ€"4 and A/B) and traditional schedules were compared and examined. Ninth grade mathematics and reading standardized test scores were evaluated under each schedule, along with the ACT, which was administered during the students’ junior year of high school. Scheduling types, gender, and ethnicity were observed to determine what, if any, influence they had on test scores. Participants involved came from 7 junior high and high schools in Colorado Spring, Colorado.After the data were reviewed, findings of this study suggests that the 4Ãâ€"4 block schedule maintained significant gains in the areas of mathematics and reading on the standardized test administered in the 9th grade. ACT scores also revealed that students on a 4Ãâ€"4 block schedule exceed those on the A/B block and traditional schedules. Gender and ethnicity had no influence on the outcome of test scores. Because of the findings, this study slightly backs the idea of block sch eduling (Lewis, 2005).When questions are asked or surveys are completed regarding the use of technology in the curriculum, the overwhelming majority of instructors would say that they are utilizing available technology. Based on the success of this author, it seems that Web-Assisted instruction can be used to enhance learning physics by students in the block schedule. The rudiments of using technology effectively to increase teaching methods must be masters and implemented by all (p. 68). â€Å"Problems with appropriate use of class time and its impact on student achievement have remained unresolved (Queen, 2000, p. 218). Ten of his fifteen recommendations for the future that he believes are important to maximize the positive impact of block scheduling are: â€Å"1. Teachers must develop and follow monthly, weekly, and daily pacing guides. 2. Teachers must master a minimum of five instructional strategies to engage students directly in the learning process and should aim to master seven or eight. 3. Teachers should pace each lesson by changing grouping patterns, varying presentations, and using different instructional activities every 10 to 15 minutes. In most cases a teacher should use a minimum of three instructional strategies during any class period. . Teachers should incorporate alternative and authentic assessment practices when evaluating students. 5. Teachers must use the entire class period for instruction. Every day. 6. Teachers should strive to be creative and flexible in assigning activities and should incorporate outside assignments in to regular classroom activities. 7. Teachers should monitor individual student’s participation in small and large groups. 8. Successful block teachers should mentor, formally or informally, beginning teachers and veteran teachers having difficulty with instruction in block scheduling. . Principals or staff development personnel must provide initial and continuing staff development for all teachers throughou t the year on the topics of curriculum and instructional alignment, instructional pacing and strategies, and time management. 10. Principals must develop a monitoring team to verify that all teachers are using pacing guides and various instructional strategies effectively (Queen, 2000, p. 221). † In essence, the success is very dependent on the professional that implement the scheduling.It is important that the principals, teachers, students, and parents give the same level of attentions and effort to block scheduling as other scheduling options (Queen 2000, p. 222). Veal and Flinders (2001) discloses that in the state of Massachusetts, it is mandatory for a student to pass (or score proficient) on language arts and mathematics portions of the MCAS during the spring semester of their sophomore year in order to graduate with a high school diploma. In 2001, one Massachusetts school, North Reading High School converted to block scheduling.A study was conducted to determine if ach ievement, as it pertains to the MCAS, increased after the implementation of the new scheduling system (Veal & Flinders, 2001). Participants of this study consisted of 762 students who took the MCAS during their sophomore year in high school. The years in which data were collected are as follows: 1998-1999 mathematics and language arts scores (one year prior to the conversion to block scheduling); 1999-2000 and 2000-2001 mathematics and language arts scores (two years after block scheduling was implemented). Results showed that in 2001 study, students on the traditional schedule, 73. 3% of the 290 students tested passed the mathematics and language arts portions of the MCAS. In the years following the conversion to block scheduling, 472 students participated in the exam, with 89. 19% of students obtaining a passing score. The outcome provides evidence that there was a significant increase in passing grades for the MCAS at North Reading High School. Veal and Flinders believed that the investment of professional development for teachers prior to the instatement of block schedule may have contributed to the improvement of test scores.Implementation of the block scheduling system can be a costly change for any school, this school found it to be an effective change (Veal & Flinders, 2001). The purpose of Trenta and Newman’s (2002) study was to determine the impact block schedules had on students’ grade point averages (GPA’s) in required English/language arts courses. Data were collected from five high schools several years prior to the block schedule conversion. Each school’s population varied in student socio-economic status and ethnicity.The hypothesis established was that GPAs in required English/language arts classes would not be impacted or affected by transition to block scheduling. The researcher used student GPAs and an ANOVA analysis of variance as methods of analysis for obtained data. Resulting from the study, it was fo und that the majority of schools’ scores increased the first year after the conversion to block schedule, but eventually reverted back to the pre-block average in subsequent years. Only one school maintained a steady increase in GPAs after the change to block scheduling.Upon the request of a mid-western school board, an evaluation was conducted on the district’s high school block scheduling program. The evaluators, Trent and Newman, were asked to conduct the evaluation based on â€Å"hard data†, not opinions. Therefore, Trenta and Newman evaluation of the school consisted of finding the relationship between block scheduling and: * Student grades (based on math, English, science, & social studies GPAs) * Ohio Proficiency Test (OPT) Scores * ACT Scores * Attendance RateTrenta and Newman states that subjects of the study consisted of a total of 500 students from the graduating classes of 1997, 2000, 2001, and 2002 (125 from each class) who attended the school f rom their freshman year through graduation. Data were collected from each student’s transcript for this study. Results of the study showed that there was a positive relationship between students’ grades and block scheduling. The same held true for the OPT scores. Although these outcomes cannot be directly attributed to block scheduling, Trenta and Newman (2002) believe that the scheduling change influenced the data concerning grades and OPT scores.ACT scores; however, showed no significant relationship to block scheduling. In the case of attendance, the data fluctuated so much so that the relationship to block scheduling, or lack thereof, was indefinite. It was concluded that the evidence for this particular high school shows that block scheduling had â€Å"an influence† on students’ academic success (Trent & Newman, 2002). Nichols (2005) believes that there is limited support that suggests that block-scheduled schools may have a direct positive effec t on improving student achievement.Several schools reported that percentages of earned â€Å"A† grades increased tremendously after block implementation (p. 300). In 1994, a high school located in the Western portion of the United States, converted from a traditional 7-period/day schedule to a 4Ãâ€"4 block schedule. The intent of this conversion was to offer more course options for the students and to create a less-stressed and slower paced atmosphere for both students and teachers. Five years after implementation of block scheduling, the director of schools sought for a method by which the program could be evaluated.In 1998, Adam and Salvaterra, assessed, among other things, whether or not block scheduling was cost-effective for this particular district. Since the concept of education and knowledge cannot be fiscally measured, the researchers had to establish several methods of evaluation in determining the value of block scheduling: collection of qualitative and quantitati ve data; collection of information on the perception of block scheduling by teachers and parents (in the form of surveys); and visits to the school in which observations were made and interviews conducted (parents, teachers, administrators, focus groups).Survey instruments were analyzed by the use of descriptive and chi statistics. After reviewing data, it was determined that after the implementation of block scheduling: * Attendance remained steady (90% attendance rate) * A Honor Roll increased * B Honor Roll remained the same * D & F scores slightly decreased * College entrance exams did not have any significant changes * Overall academic achievement remained stable Although academic achievement varied little, results showed that in reference to the A and B honor roll, students performed better under block scheduling.Other areas evaluated included the professional development/training for block scheduling for faculty. Surveys showed that although there was little training was provided to teachers, in-services compensated and aided teachers in preparing to each under the block schedule. In block scheduling, teachers are allotted a planning time which is almost double that of a traditional schedule. This time was not being monitored by administration. Results from surveys and interviews showed that faculty and administration could more effectively utilize this time.However, results also showed that teachers use this time to work more closely with students in providing additional assistance and also in preparing for the lesson/unit that is being taught. Would there be much change, if any, in the results of student achievement? Would it be worth the financial and educational costs of implementing a new type of schedule? Teachers should also be trained on how to instruct under a new scheduling type. By doing so, teachers will be equipped with the necessary tools by which they can adequately educate students under a particular type of schedule (Jenkins, 2002). Chapter 3 Summary As I looked into the research, reports and articles, it is clear that there are disadvantages and certainly advantages for the use of the block schedule. When one study reports lower test scores on the block schedule in an area, it is possible to find another study with contradictory findings. The majority of the studies reviewed showed that there was no significant difference in student achievement based upon the type of scheduling. Studies where students showed improvement in block scheduling, however, had several external factors that may have impacted student achievement (i. e. xtensive research among students, teachers, and parents prior to implementing a new type of schedule, teacher in-service training as pertains to block scheduling, etc). One underlying theme throughout the literature was that the majority of, if not all of the stakeholders, need to be on-board and coached prior to the implementation of a new or different schedule. I concur with Wronkovich , â€Å"the decision whether or not to adopt block scheduling should be based on the examination of current research. Schools should establish measurable goals and set a timetable for evaluating the outcomes of block scheduling (para. )†. â€Å"Block schedules can potentially ease the transition from the homelike atmosphere of the elementary school to the departmentalized environment of the high school by reducing the need for constant class changes and the number of classes students have on any given day, while providing increased content emphases and time on task. The blocked time schedule also gives even disorganized students a fighting chance to keep abreast of assignments and projects (Mowen & Mowen, 2004, p. 50). † I have found that the research is still inconclusive as to which schedule better serves the educational needs of students.Like with any topic, there are studies and research that favor arguments on both sides, indicating that more information is de finitely needed. 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