Planning Definition Essay Example for Free

Planning Definition Essay Planning means looking ahead and chalking out future courses of action to be followed. It is a preparatory step. It is a systematic activity which determines when, how and who is going to perform a specific job. Planning is a detailed programme regarding future courses of action. It is rightly said â€Å"Well plan is half done†. Therefore planning takes into consideration available prospective human and physical resources of the organization so as to get effective co-ordination, contribution perfect adjustment. It is the basic management function which includes formulation of one or more detailed plans to achieve optimum balance of needs or demands with the available resources.According to Urwick, â€Å"Planning is a mental predisposition to do things in orderly way, to think before acting and to act in the light of facts rather than guesses†. Planning is deciding best alternative among others to perform different managerial functions in order to achieve predetermined goals.| According to Koontz O’Donell, â€Å"Planning is deciding in advance what to do, how to do and who is to do it. Planning bridges the gap between where we are to, where we want to go. It makes possible things to occur which would not otherwise occur†. Steps in Planning Function Establishment of objectives Establishment of Planning Premises Choice of alternative course of action Formulation of derivative plans Securing Co-operation Follow up/Appraisal of plans Planning Importance in Management Planning may be broadly defined as a concept of executive action that embodies the skill of anticipating, influencing, and controlling the nature and direction of change. McFarland Importance of Planning Planning increases the organizations ability to adapt to future eventualities Planning helps crystallize objectives Planning ensures a relatedness among decisions Planning helps the company to remain more competitive in its industry Adequate planning reduces unnecessary pressures of immediacy Planning reduces mistakes and oversights: Planning ensures a more productive use of the organizations resources Planning makes control easier Planning enables the identification of future problems and makes it possible to provide for such contingencies Planning enables the identification of future problems and makes it possible to provide for such contingencies Planning increases the effectiveness of a manager 2.Evolution of Classical Approach to Management Traditional process of learning is either through obsevation and experiment. Nature or environment is considered uniform and when we observe certain phenomenon or events uniformly leading to the same result or results, we conclude a cause and effect relationship between the two. This is learning by observation or in other words by experience. Earlier thinkers on management followed this approach in developing theories of management. Learning principally is through emphirical process and through analysis of the data collected through observation. Draw the principles of managment by looking at and anyalysing the jobs that all managers commonly do. This approach served as a starting point for pioneers on management science to verify the validity and improve the applicability of the principles and practices of management. Analysis of observd data is what constitute a case study. The observational method of case study helps arriving at logical conclusions about past experience and to test the same as standards for future events. The German sociolists, Max Weber followed the classical approach and developed his theory of Bureaucracy, which portrays the structure anddesign of organisation charqacterised by a hierarchy of authority, formalised rules and regulations that serve to guide the coordinated functioning of an organization. Basic Postulates of the Classical Approach by Max Weber 1. Management of an organization is considered as a chain of inter-related functions. The study of the scope and features of these functions, the sequence through which these are performed and their inter-relationship leads one to draw principles of management suitable for universal application 2. Learning principles of management is done through the past experiences of actual practicing managers 3. As business environment consists of uniform cycles exhibiting an underlying unity of realities, functions and principles of management derived through process of empirical reasoning are suitable for universal application 4. Emerging new managers through formal education and case study can develop skill and competency in management concepts and practices 5. The clasasical approach also recognised the importance of economic efficiency and formal organizational structure as guiding pillars of management effectigveness. 6. Business activity is based on economic benefit. Organizations should t herefore control economic incentives Neoclassical theory of management There are 3 neoclassical theories: Human Relations theory : Explains the modern advancement of Human Relations Management theory which takes into account human factors like the employer-employee relationship. Human relations theory is largely seen to have been born as a result of the Hawthorne experiments which Elton Mayo conducted at the Western Electrical Company. The important strand in the development of modern management was the increase in attention to the human factors, which has become known as the human relations school of management.’ The core aspect of Human Relations Theory is that, when workers were being observed and included in the research, they felt more important and valued by the company. As a result, their productivity levels went up significantly. This represented a significant departure from many of the classical theories, particularly Fordism, as it went against the notion that management needed to control workers, and remove their autonomy at every step. Instead, it showed that by engaging with workers and considering their requirements and needs, company’s could benefit from increased productivity. Behavioral theory : The behavioral management theory is often called the human relations movement because it addresses the human dimension of work. Behavioral theorists believed that a better understanding of human behavior at work, such as motivation, conflict, expectations, and group dynamics, improved productivity. The theorists who contributed to this school viewed employees as individuals, resources, and assets to be developed and worked with — not as machines, as in the past. Several individuals and experiments contributed to this theory. Social systems theory.: Developed by Niklas Luhmann is an option for the theoretical foundation of Human Resource Management (HRM). After clarifying the advantages of using a grand (social) theory as the basic theoretical perspective, the roots of this social systems theory the deterministic view of systems as machines, the open systems approach and non-linear systems theory are addressed. Based on the view of social systems as autopoietically closed systems, five major contributions to a theoretical foundation of HRM are identified: (1) the conceptualisation of organising and managing human resources as social processes, thus overcoming an individualistic angle; (2) the new importance of individuals as essential element in the systems environment; (3) the abstention form far reaching or highly unrealistic assumptions about the nature of human beings; (4) the interaction between various levels and units of analysis built into the theory which is essential for comprehensive and in-depth analyses of HR phen omena and (5) the openness for additional theories for which social systems theory provides the overall framework. Modern Management Theory Management is one or the other form has existed in every nook and corner of the world since the dawn of civilization. Modern Management has grown with the growth of social-economics and scientific institution. Modern view consists that a worker does not work for only money. They work for their satisfaction and happiness with good living style. Here Non- financial award is most important factor. Modern management theories started after 1950s. Modern management theory focuses the development of each factor of workers and organization. Modern management theory refers to emphasizing the use of systematic mathematical techniques in the system with analyzing and understanding the inter-relationship of management and workers in all aspect. It has following three Streams- Quantitative Approach System Approach Contingency Approach Quantitative Approach: Quantitative approach also called Operation Research. Quantitative approach is a scientific method. It emphasizes the use of statistical model and systematic mathematical techniques to solving complex management problems. Its helps the management to making decisions in operations. It can only suggest the alternatives based on statistical data. It cannot take final decision. It helps the management for improving their decision making by increasing the number of alternatives and giving faster decisions on any problem. Management can easily calculate the risk and benefit of various actions. Major contributors in Quantitative Approach are- Johan MacDonald George R. Terry Andrew Szilagyi System approach: System approach was developed inlate1960s. Herbert A. Simon is the father of system theory. A System is defined as a set of regularly interacting or inter dependent components that create as a whole unit. The system concept enables us to see the critical variables and constraints and their interactions with one another. According to Cleland and King; â€Å" A system is composed of related and dependent elements which when in interaction from a unity whole†. Characteristics of system approach: A system must have some specific components, units or sub units. A Change in one system affects the other subsystems. Every system is influenced by super system. All systems along their subsystem must have some common objectives. A system is a goal-oriented. A system cannot survive in isolation. Major contributors in system theories are- Daniel Katz, Robert L. Khan, Richard A. Johnson. Contingency Approach: Contingency Approach also knows as situational approach. In 1980s, it is recognized as a key to effective management. This approach accepts the dynamics and complexities of the organization structure. An organization is affected by its environment and environment is composed by physical resources, climate, persons, culture, economic and market conditions and their laws. This approach argues that there is no one universally applicable set of rules by which to manage organization. Major contributors in the contingency theories are- G.M. Stalker, Joan Woodward, Tom Burns, Paul R. Lawrence, L.W. Lorsch. Management by objectives (MBO) is a process of defining objectives within an organization so that management and employees agree to the objectives and understand what they need to do in the organization in order to achieve them. The term management by objectives was first popularized by Peter Drucker in his 1954 book The Practice of Management.[1] The essence of MBO is participative goal setting, choosing course of actions and decision making. An important part of the MBO is the measurement and the comparison of the employee’s actual performance with the standards set. Ideally, when employees themselves have been involved with the goal setting and choosing the course of action to be followed by them, they are more likely to fulfill their responsibilities. According to George S. Odiorne, the system of management by objectives can be described as a process whereby the superior and subordinate jointly identify its common goals, define each individuals major areas of responsibility in terms of the results expected of him, and use these measures as guides for operating the unit and assessing the contribution of each of its members. Features and advantages Some of the important features and advantages of MBO are: Motivation – Involving employees in the whole process of goal setting and increasing employee empowerment. This increases employee job satisfaction and commitment. Better communication and coordination – Frequent reviews and interactions between superiors and subordinates helps to maintain harmonious relationships within the organization and also to solve many problems. Clarity of goals Subordinates tend to have a higher commitment to objectives they set for themselves than those imposed on them by another person. Managers can ensure that objectives of the subordinates are linked to the organizations objectives. Domains and levels Objectives can be set in all domains of activities (production, marketing, services, sales, RD, human resources, finance, information systems etc.). Some objectives are collective, for a whole department or the whole company, others can be individualized. Practice Objectives need quantifying and monitoring. Reliable management information systems are needed to establish relevant objectives and monitor their reach ratio in an objective way. Pay incentives (bonuses) are often linked to results in reaching the objectives. Limitations There are several limitations to the assumptive base underlying the impact of managing by objectives,[citation needed] including: It over-emphasizes the setting of goals over the working of a plan as a driver of outcomes. It underemphasizes the importance of the environment or context in which the goals are set. That context includes everything from the availability and quality of resources, to relative buy-in by leadership and stake-holders. As an example of the influence of management buy-in as a contextual influencer, in a 1991 comprehensive review of thirty years of research on the impact of Management by Objectives, Robert Rodgers and John Hunter concluded that companies whose CEOs demonstrated high commitment to MBO showed, on average, a 56% gain in productivity. Companies with CEOs who showed low commitment only saw a 6% gain in productivity.[citation needed] Stage 1. Collectively fixing objectives The superior and subordinate managers collectively fix the objectives. The objectives are fixed for the Key Result Areas (KRAs). KRAs are those areas which are very important for the long-term success of the organisation. For e.g. R D, Production, Finance, Marketing, etc. Definite and measurable objectives should be fixed for each KRA. The time limit for achieving the objectives should also be fixed. The objectives should be achieved by the subordinate manager. For e.g. The objective for the marketing managers may be to increase the sales of product XYZ by 50% for the year 2010-2011. Stage 2. Collectively making a plan After fixing the objective, the superior and subordinate managers make an action plan. This plan will be used by the subordinate manager to achieve the objective. Stage 3. Subordinates implements the plan The subordinate manager implements the plan. That is, he puts the plan to action. He makes optimum use of the resources. If required, he takes guidance from the superior managers. Stage 4. Collectively monitoring performance This is the final stage in the MBO process. Here, the subordinate monitors (evaluates or measures) his own performance. He compares his performance with the planned targets (objectives). If there are any deviations, then the superior and subordinates managers fix new objectives. In this stage, the superior acts like a coach and guide. He does not act like a judge.

Foundations of Political Thought Essay examples -- Philosophy, Aristot

Aristotle and Socrates and Plato’s beliefs have similarities mainly evident in their denouncement of democracy for the state. The views of Socrates expressed and written by his pupil Plato are vastly philosophical in nature and he promotes the idea of questioning life to achieve insight. The philosophers who possess the absolute truth are the best equipped to rule society according to Plato and his Allegory of the Cave. Conversely, Aristotle takes a more political science approach of discussing and analyzing various constitutions to determine the best form of government, where the rational beings in a society are the natural rulers. Aristotle promotes the idea of rule based on law rather than simple superiority. The differences in these beliefs are important because of the implications of Aristotle’s writings, which provide a way for citizens and statesmen to utilize philosophy in politics and the state. Consequently, information in Politics is seen again througho ut modern politics. The similarities of Aristotle’s beliefs expressed through his writings in Politics to the beliefs of Plato and Socrates expressed in the recorded dialogues of The Republic are centered mainly on a fear of democracy. Aristotle asserts that only those who are concerned with virtue and good government should be the leaders in a society or community (Politics, 80). In Book III of Politics Aristotle describes what the role of the majority should be in politics, By means of these considerations, too, one might solve the problem mentioned earlier and also the related one of what the free should have authority over, that is to say, the multitude of the citizens who are not rich and have no claim whatsoever arising from virtue. For it would not be... ...archy and democracy into polity. Through this idea of addressing factions and political interdependence Aristotle outlines the way to a lasting state. In Federalist 10, Madison describes in a similar way that competing factions imposing a system of checks and balances can protect against dominance of a single faction or class. Aristotle’s claims of law, constitution, polity, factions, and citizenship all have comparability to many U.S. notions of political life, even his justification of slavery is reminiscent of the views of some founding fathers. Aristotle discovered and outlined many elements of early American political thought long before the existence of the United States. Aristotle himself said, â€Å"For practically speaking, all things have been discovered, although some have not been collected, and others are known about but not used† (Politics, 34).

Papago Woman

Papago Woman, written by Ruth M. Underhill, is an ethnography of the life of a native american woman named Maria Chona, a member of the Southern Arizona Papago people located right outside of Tucson, Arizona on a reservation. Ruth lived among the Papago from 1931 till 1933. She studied the life of the Papago with her main subject an older Papago woman named Chona. She says at one point how she learned amongst these people and Chona, â€Å"I feel, nevertheless, that out of all this flurry there came the story as it had appeared in Chona's mind,† (27). By hearing the life of this Papago woman she learned about life as a Papago.To collect data about the Papago way of life and Chona, Ruth Underhill asked many questions. She was very forward with her questions at first because she had not yet known the Papago way of life, such as asking the name of Chona's dead son and not knowing that the name of the dead are not said out loud. Underhill integrated her life into that of the tribe. In the 3 years she stayed there she learned much through this method. She studied the language and Papago method of breathing by listening to the way they say their words and learned how they pronounce r's as l's and f's as p's.She also used translators along the way. Part one of the Papago woman describes Ruth Underhill's first encounter with the Papago people. Ruth goes to Tuscon, Arizona on a grant from Colombia University, the college she was attending, to live amongst this native american tribe in the southwest. Underhill drives to Arizona and meets a few friends living in Tuscon who tell her about the tribes people . They tell her how a few Papago come to their homes looking for work. They describe them as soft-spoken, brown people. Underhill inquired about any of the english speaking Papago she could meet.She is then introduced to a yardman, Rafeal, or Lapai in the language of his people. Lapai in turn takes her to meet a woman named Chona who lives on a reservation in an un furnished dwelling, similar to that of a cellar. Ruth listens with intent as Chona talks. Lapai translates the conversation for her. Throughout her stories, Ruth notices that Chona talks about how it used to be when she was a child. Ruth asks Chona about her family. She learns that Chona had two sons and a daughter but one son who was a medicine man died, the other is in Mexico, and the daughter got married and moved away.Ruth asks the name of Chona's dead soon and is met with an uncomfortable silence. Lapai tells Ruth that Chona had a sister who married a man named Lillat, whom she calls â€Å"husband-of-my-sister,† but died and Lillat was remarried with children (Underhill 5). They decided to go on a trip to visit Lillat and his family who lived far out on the reservation away from government headquarters. Soon they set out but not before the rest of the people living around Chona tried to all hitch a ride with Ruth to see Lillat. On the way, Ruth learned much about the lan d as the Papago know it.She learns about eating cholla during the dry season, or â€Å"hungry time,† (Underhill 8). Chona points to a white rock and tells Ruth about the kidnapping of the Papago woman by the Apache during the fall when the corn was ripe. Chona also mentions Coyote and I'itoi who are very important people in Papago stories of history. â€Å"Coyote,† she said, â€Å"helped put the world in order. Only he made mistakes,† (Underhill 9). She would not talk further about Coyote because, â€Å"These things about the Beginning are holy. They should not be told in the hot time when the snakes are out. The snakes guard our secrets.If we tell what is forbidden, they bite,† (Underhill 9). A few hours later they arrived at Lilliat's adobe home. In true Papago fashion, they waited to be welcomed. They all stood across from each other smiling. Lapai and Ruth were never introduced but instead were greeted with kind smiles of gratitude. She learned that t he Papago do not believe in sayings superficial things such as thank you but instead being welcomed through hospitality. With news of the guest arrival, the whole village came to eat at Lilliat's house. Before dinner began, the ways of child-rearing were viewed.The youngest son of Lilliat was told to â€Å"Shut the door,† and was not praised but instead allowed to sit on the men's side of the table. As dinner went on Ruth observed more and more of the Papago customs. Strangers were studied very carefully to see their true selves. Bedtime was early and the bed was on the ground. Early rising is custom of Papago because, â€Å"Papagos had learned how to deal with the sun and did not hate or fear it. Those who slept past the dawn light were set down as hopeless drones,† (Underhill 14). The day begin when men went to fill the water tanks.The water was shared and not thrown out with the guest being the first to use it. Women set to work with the meals for the day and basket -making. Later that day, a girl named Vela who could speak a little bit of english visited. She promised to help Ruth with translations. Ruth realized that her persistent questioning had been seen as ignorant and embarrassing to Chona. The women told Ruth about their job to bring the clouds to make rain. She soon discovered they would be taking a trip to gather cactus fruit to prepare wine for the rain festival.They rode to the sahuaro cactus to gather the pear-ish fruit. Ruth again learned about Coyote and I'itoi. â€Å"When I'itoi was furnishing the earth, he thought he would put sahuaro all over. Then everyone could have fruit without too much walking. But Coyote, he doesn't like work,† (Underhill 19). Coyote had not fully planted the seeds given to him by I'itoi to distribute the cacti and instead dropped them on the south hill. Then the cactus only grew on the south hill and not the north. The women gathered the cactus fruit and boiled it for the wine. Then it soon began to rain.Next, the people ventured to Lillat's parent village, Burnt Seeds, to gather for the rain festival. On their third night there the men dressed up for the dancing that would take place that night. They all gathered around a fire and danced and chanted in circles. The women picked the men they wanted and held hands to join in the dancing. They sang the same song continuously, â€Å"On the edge of the mountain, A cloud hangs. And there my heart, my heart, my heart, Hangs with it,† (Underhill 24). The next night when the wine had fermented the village gathered again to drink.This night was when they would drink until the wine was all gone which led to everyone getting drunk. The medicine man prophesied the rains would come after four days. A week from the night, the rains came and raged for a week. Once that ended the villagers once again gathered to sing and do work such a basket weaving. This chapter helps the ethnography by giving an example of Ruth's immersion into t he tribe by experiencing their traditions. In part two, Underhill begins by telling a little background on the Papago people and Chona. The origins of the Papago people are mentioned.They are closely related to the Pima people who live in lush lands near the border of Mexico. It is this reason that the Papago know them as the â€Å"River People† whilst the the Papago call themselves the â€Å"Desert People,† (Underhill 31). The Pima and the Papago were once one group split by the migration of the spanish missionaries. Since the desert had not attracted the church, the Pima, living in greater lands â€Å"adopted American names and American clothing, and by 1871 had an American school,† while the Papago people cherished their ancient way of life (Underhill 32).Ruth witnessed and documented the life of the Papago whilst studying the life of a 90 year old woman named Maria Chona, â€Å"She was the daughter of a prominent leader, Jose Maria, nicknamed Con Quien. â⠂¬  (Underhill 32). She loved her father and therefore â€Å"accepted her culture completely,† (Underhill 33). Ruth was able to write the biography with little fluency in the Papago language and with Chona knowing a small bit of Spanish. What Ruth noticed about the stories of the Papago was there repetitive nature. Small details that are not important to non-Papago natives are confusing.Things such as emotion were summed up in ways such as â€Å"I liked it,† or â€Å"I did not like it,† (Underhill 33). Chona wanted Ruth to write everything exactly as she told it but due to the emphasis on details and repetition, the non-native readers of the story would not be satisfied. Chona, we learn, â€Å"As a woman, she could not take part the ceremonial life,† but, â€Å"Chona accepted her status without stress or rancor,† (Underhill 34). She possessed an interesting background, one where she had two husbands. Her first husband was a shaman. Chona also had a co-wife, since polygamy was a norm amongst her people, whom she resented.She describes her home growing up. She lived at Mesquite Root in a grass house. Her father was the chief there. As a child the girls did not wear tops. Water was scarce and what was there was red in color, â€Å"Oh yes, our water was always red. It made the corn gruel red. I liked that earth taste in my food,† (Underhill 36). The men of the village would go to hunt without water because it was considered womanly to bring water along. Chona's mother would ground seeds to make flour while her father would listen to people problems. Her father also liked to gamble, gaining himself the nickname The Gambler.The men would smoke tobacco often during gambling. When it was time to eat, the dishes were not washed, â€Å"When we had finished we did not wash the dishes. How could we, with no water,† (Underhill 38). Due to water scarcity they were not able to bathe either. When the children would play the bo ys would catch rats and roast them for all to eat. They would also go to the racetrack to run. When they were hungry they would gather food planted by Elder Brother, â€Å"Elder Brother planted those things for us,† (Underhill 39). When it was time for rainy season, Chona would experience the same ritual that Ruth would years later picking the cactus fruit.During the time of menstruation, Chona's mother would enter into the Little House so as not to bring bad luck and death to her father during war. For the men if they were â€Å"Killers† then they would have to be purified (Underhill 41). This meant they were separated from their family for days. Everyone in the family would be cleansed and gain power from the dead enemy. In her family, Chona's grandfather had been a medicine man. Due to this association and her brother behavior it was known that he would be a medicine man. Chona's family was always sick.The medicine man would come to their house constantly to heal th em. He sang songs to cure what ailed them. Singing seemed to be a big part of Chona's life. It was natural to her family and soothing to her. People would dream of owls and then sing in front everyone so that the owls would go away, â€Å"People had to be sent for who had dreamed of owls, because that is how all songs come, by dreaming,† (Underhill 48). At one time an evil medicine man sent a a sickness that covered the whole village. So medicine men begin to walk into each hut waving branches to gather the sickness.Chona did not get as sick as everyone else did. She did begin to have visions. She saw things that no one else did but it was natural to her because of her family background. During summers the corn was planted. It was said that, â€Å"The corn was once a man and he lured a woman away to sleep with him,† (Underhill 52) They would sing about that encounter and plant the corn so that it would grow strong. Summers also made the people happy because it was when the rain would come. Ruth also gathered that from what she heard form Chona was that their was a story for every occurrence.So just like the corn, there was a story for the rain. The story was turned into singing that would help bring the rain along with the cactus festival. Like her father, Chona was hardworking, passionate, and a gambler. She was so good at gambling that she even beat a grown woman. As she got older she went through menses, â€Å"Girls are very dangerous at that time,† (Underhill 57). When girls go through menses they would bring lightning into the village and go to the Little House behind their families homes to prevent these occurrences that happen during menstruation.When her dangerous time came to an end after a month , she was bathed to prevent death to her family and her hair was washed with soapweed fibers, â€Å"That is the way women should always wash their hair and it will never grow gray,† (Underhill 59). During this period the girl would also grow very thin, â€Å"We girls are like strips of yucca fiber after our coming of age is over,† (Underhill 61). At cleansing she was named Cha-veela as is customary during this time. When it was time to marry, Chona did not know her husband. He was a medicine man's son.Her breast had grown large so it was her time marry. Her father told the boy's parents about the marriage and they agreed to it. The boy was told last about the marriage. Her father gave her advice on how to be a good wife, â€Å"That husband of yours, listen to him,† (Underhill 62). For the marriage they had to lie together in her hut with her mother beside her for four nights. This is how Papago are married and she moves in with him after. Her husband has three brothers but one is a man-woman, â€Å"The third brother was called Shining Evening and he was a man-woman,† (Underhill 64).After a while she became dangerous again and goes through menstruation. When she is integrated into the fami ly, the mother tattoos her chin with four black marks. At one point Chona goes with her husband to se a race against the River People. Her people won and received many items from the betting. Chona has her first child and becomes very superstitious as not to harm the child, â€Å"I was kind to the people in our village who looked sick or ugly, and I never laughed at them, so that my baby should have a good body,† (Underhill 66).Soon after, two of her husband's brothers marry. The wives always stayed with Shining Evening when the men were out, â€Å"We girls used to spend all day with that man-woman, Shining Evening,† (Underhill 67). Chona had six children with her husband, five of which were boys and one a girl. The boys all died. She would leave her babies at home sometimes to go help the Mexicans with their harvest. They were always on the lookout for Apaches, the enemy, and were almost killed. They vowed never to go to the Mexicans alone again. Her husband started h aving visions.He was a Coyote-Meeter, â€Å"When he had his medicine man's dreams, it was our comrade, Coyote, who came to him and sang him songs,† (Underhill 71). soon after her husband became a medicine man. After this occurrence her father died and the medicine men could not save him. They buried him with his blanket, pillows, and a few valuables. White men soon came and brought with them whisky. The men of the village would drink this and have visions like a medicine man would, â€Å"Men grew crazy when they drank that whiskey and they had visions,† (Underhill 74).For some time Chona would leave to visit other villages. One time when she was returning, she heard news that her husbands had married again. Chona was heartbroken and left him. She took her child and went to her brother. Her uncle who resided there married her to an old rich man despite her disagreement because women had no say in matters such as these. Her new husband brought her many things. She learne d that her first husband had grown sick and died upon hearing the news. He did not want his second wife and cried when he heard of Chona's marriage, â€Å"I never saw my first husband again.They told me when he heard of my new marriage he cried,† (Underhill 78). Soon after his death Chona caught falling hair sickness, a disease from the white people. A medicine man cured her and taught her how to cure. Chona has two sons from her second husband. One, a medicine man, died young because a wild woman was with him, â€Å"She lay with my son in the house when she should have been at the Little House,† (Underhill 85). Ruth learns that seven years prior to her arrival, Chona's second husband had died. After she was alone in her home she would go to visit her daughters home at Burnt Seeds village.This chapter helps the ethnography by having Ruth hear exactly what she came there to learn. It tells the life of an actual Papago women. Part three briefly talks about child-rearing amongst the Papago. Children are always surrounded, â€Å"The Papago child was born not into a single family but into a group,† (Underhill 89). The child is taught to be apart of the group and never seen as an annoyance. They learn action through observation. One of the most important was not to speak the name of the dead, â€Å"Because if the dead hear they may think you are calling them.And they will come and take you because they are so lonely,† (Underhill 90). Ruth also learns that a woman's place is not with the men. She had realized how separated things were between the sexes. The woman told her they do not fret because, â€Å"Why should we envy men? We made the men,† (Underhill 92). Another thing she noticed was the lack of love stories among the Papago. The woman told her that there were love songs and stories but not many. Woman would also become enamored with the men bringing back scalps and chase after them, â€Å"Some women went crazy and ran after men-but it was the ‘scalps,'† (93).The Papago in the present are also talked about. Ruth says, â€Å"By the time of my visit, the Bureau of Indian Affairs had moved in,† (94) and they were soon introduced to more modern ways. Men joined the army learning english and schools were built. The Papago today vote and have dictionaries in their own language. This chapter helps the ethnography by giving a short insight on the child-rearing, love amongst the Papago, and present day Papago. The most important issues of the ethnographer seemed to be retelling the story in a way that readers could understand.Ruth mentions this in the beginning of chapter two about the way the story was told in traditional indian style which is confusing to outsiders. The most important aspect of interpreting things like this seems to be that the observer must live amongst the people to fully understand their ways and interpret them for others. This is the same for the film â€Å" A Man Calle d Bee† and the Yanomamo text. The perspective of the ethnographer is that the Papago people are so different from the outside world; soft-spoken and tribal in their ways.This colored her analysis through her main focus on an older resident of the tribe who had grown up the Papago way. The ethnographers methods are convincing because she relays a story just like it was told to her and includes her experience amongst the people making the report all the more convincing. Ruth does not necessarily generalize her findings because she tells of the present Papago, interviews, and has older tribe member giving a story on that side of life, and includes the writer's own experience at the rain festival.This ethnography helped me to see how an older people lived. The Papago are ancient in their ways and I see that when I compare their way of life to my own. Ruth reinforced my assumptions about human behavior mostly when she described the ways men and women were separated and seen in diff erent lights, much like today. Works Cited Underhill, R. M. U. (1979). Papago Woman. (Reprint ed. , Vol. 1, p. 98). Prospect Heights, Illinois: Waveland Press, Inc.

Willy Loman the Tragic Hero Essay - 1462 Words

Arthur Miller made the comment that a tragic hero â€Å"has the inherent unwillingness to remain passive in the face of what he conceives to be a challenge to his dignity.† Nowhere is this more evident than in Miller’s play Death of a Salesman, where salesman Willy Loman desperately struggles to regain a sense of dignity after experiencing a number of setbacks in his life. Despite not being able to provide for his family, Willy Loman continues the futile struggle to earn a living, which shows the despair of falling from a position of respect to a position of uselessness. The hopes and dreams that he has for his kids in the past never come into existence, but Willy still enthusiastically pushes his adult children to accomplish unrealistic†¦show more content†¦Through this, Miller demonstrates that self-deception can lead to even more problems. In accordance with Arthur Miller’s definition of a tragic hero, Willy is unwilling to remain passive when his di gnity is challenged. When his neighbor Charley offers Willy a steady paying job, Willy refuses. By taking the job from Charley, Willy feels as though it would hurt his pride. Willy’s inability to see past his pride blinds him to the basic rationality of taking a steady paying job. Miller shows that one must differentiate between an appropriate time to protect one’s honor, and an appropriate time to be pragmatic in order to make ends meet. Willy’s unwillingness to remain passive is seen when he pleads with his boss to allow him to work closer to home. He says, â€Å"Forty dollars a week, that’s all I’d need... I put thirty four years into this firm, Howard, and now I can’t pay my insurance! You can’t eat an orange and then throw the peel away! A man is not a piece of fruit!† (82). Miller has Willy fired from the job altogether after this meeting in order to show that people that have become useless will often be rejected by soci ety. Willy’s expectations that he would continue to live a dignified life are thwarted, and Miller thrusts Willy even deeper into despair, proving that unfulfilled expectations can potentially ruin one’s life. Similar to Willy’s non-passive attitude toward his own job, he is extremely optimistic about the fate of his two sons, whichShow MoreRelatedWilly Loman Tragic Hero730 Words   |  3 PagesIn 1949, the forlorn life of Willy Loman is introduced in Arthur Miller’s â€Å"Death of a Salesman†. At this time the American Dream was something everyone craved during the peak of suburbia. The American Dream was the golden standard of living like Donna Reed, all wrapped up with a white picket fence. To Willy Loman, The American Dream was not the golden standard, but the only standard. His wife Linda dutifully greeting him as he came home from a successful day as a salesman, and sits down to dinnerRead MoreWilly Loman Tragic Hero Analysis956 Words   |à ‚  4 Pagesis revolved around the concept of tragedy and a tragic hero. Aristotle defines tragedy as â€Å"the consequence of a man’s total compulsion to evaluate himself justly†. A tragic hero is defined as â€Å"a literary character who makes a judgement error that inevitably leads to his/her own destruction†. These two concepts apply to the play in the sense that Willy Loman is a man of good intentions, but there is often an undesirable outcome of them. Also, Willy is a victim of himself and his own beliefs. ArthurRead MoreWilly Loman Tragic Hero Analysis971 Words   |  4 Pagesor affair; disaster†. The main character, Willy Loman, shows how one dream can become a disaster through his impractical dreams and failing at achieving these goals. Not only does he fail at his dreams, he participates in an affair that is against morals. The idea of a tragic hero is defined as â€Å"a great or virtuous character in a dramatic tragedy who is destined for downfa ll, suffering, or defeat†. Miller believes that the common man is the best tragic hero because it shows that the average, everydayRead MoreCharacteristics Of Willy Loman A Tragic Hero834 Words   |  4 PagesWilly Loman a Tragic Hero? Death Of a Salesman is a 1949 play written by american playwright Arthur Miller. It is a breathtaking play about Willy Loman, a salesman, trying to chase a dream that died long ago. It expresses how the old man’s life comes crumbling down with his last few attempts to make some of his dream reality and help his family in debt. Now people are debating weather Willy loman fits the right characteristics to be classified as a tragic hero. A tragic hero is someone who makesRead MoreHow Is Willy Loman A Tragic Hero727 Words   |  3 Pages The tragic hero referenced throughout the essay Tragedy and a Common Man is Willy Loman from Death of a Salesman. What Arthur Miller means by tragic hero is a protagonist in a play or a different form of filmography who is a subject for tragedy in its highest sense. The essay refers to a character who is ready to lay down his life to secure his personal dignity. The next reference to this character is society the struggle to gain a rightful posi tion. The last proof of this is how Miller talks aboutRead MoreWilly Loman - A Tragic Hero Essay744 Words   |  3 Pageswhen he or she cannot live the â€Å"American Dream.† Willy Loman, the main character in the play is a confused and tragic character. He is a man who is struggling to hold onto what morality he has left in a changing society that no longer values the ideals he grew up to believe in. Even though the society he lives in can be blamed for much of his misfortune, he must also be the blame for his bad judgment, disloyalty and his foolish pride. Willy Loman believes in the â€Å"American Dream,† which is the beliefRead MoreIs Willy Loman a Tragic Hero in Death of Salesman1305 Words   |  6 PagesWilly Loman’s character in Death of a Salesman portrays him as a tragic hero. Willy Loman continued to want his recognition and his reputation but never forgets about his family. These characteristics describe him as a tragic hero in Death of a Salesman. Willy Loman’s tragic flow leads him to purse the idea that reputation in society has more relevancies in life than knowledge and education to survive in the business. His grand error of wanting recognition drove him crazy and insane and lead toRead MoreEssay on Can Willy Loman Be Considered A Tragic Hero?1632 Words   |  7 PagesCan Willy Loman Be Considered A Tragic Hero? Whether Willy Loman can be considered a tragic hero has long been debated between critics. Ever since Miller produced the play, people have discussed whether Willy’s status was high enough for his fall to be considered tragic, or whether Willy can be seen as an altogether modern tragic hero, I will be looking at both these views taking into consideration critics views and also adding my own thoughts. Tragedy has its origin in ancient GreeceRead More Willy Loman as Tragic Hero of Death of a Salesman Essay1519 Words   |  7 PagesWilly Loman as Tragic Hero of Death of a Salesman       Willy Loman, the title character of the play, Death of Salesman, exhibits all the characteristics of a modern tragic hero. This essay will support this thesis by drawing on examples from Medea by Euripedes, Poetics by Aristotle, Oedipus Rex by Sophocles, and Shakespeares Julius Caesar, while comments by Moss, Gordon, and Nourse reinforce the thesis.   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚   Death of Salesman, by Arthur Miller, fits the characteristics of classicRead MoreEssay Death of a Salesman, Tragic Hero. Willy Loman.1503 Words   |  7 PagesTo what extent can Willy Loman be considered a tragic hero according to Aristotle’s rules? Arthur Miller presents his play ‘Death of a Salesman’ in the ancient form of a tragedy. Aristotle has defined his idea of the ‘perfect’ tragedy in his text, ‘Poetics’ (350 BC).Here he suggests that the protagonist must fall from an elevated social standing as a result of a â€Å"fatal flaw† within the character; the fall from the main character creates resolution to the play which is seen as just; finally, Aristotle